WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSAL (USC Libraries)

The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which this research should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting the research are governed by standards within the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, so guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion.

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Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal

Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following reasons:

• Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
• Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to ensure a research problem has not already been answered [or you may determine the problem has been answered ineffectively] and, in so doing, become better at locating scholarship related to your topic;
• Improve your general research and writing skills;
• Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals; and,
• Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of doing scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the results of the study and your analysis of those results. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your writing is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

1. What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succient in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to research.
2. Why do you want to do it? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a topic worthy of study. Be sure to answer the "So What?" question.
3. How are you going to do it? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having trouble formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here.

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Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Failure to be concise; being "all over the map" without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.
• Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.].
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
• Failure to stay focused on the research problem; going off on unrelated tangents.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.

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Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal.  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal. Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Structure and Writing Style

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing a traditional research paper, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. Proposals vary between ten and twenty pages in length. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

• What do I want to study
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In the end, your research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and highlight enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

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In general your proposal should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to sense your passion for the topic and be excited about the study's possible outcomes.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in one to three paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions:

1. What is the central research problem?
2. What is the topic of study related to that problem?
3. What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
4. Why is this important research, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes from the study?

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II.  Background and Significance

This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your study proposal and outline why it's important. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the research problem; instead, you must choose what is relevant to help explain the goals for your study.

To that end, while there are no hard and fast rules, you should attempt to deal with some or all of the following:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explaination about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted.
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. Answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care].
• Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research.
• Explain how you plan to go about conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Set the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts or terms.

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III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation. The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methods they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings. Assess what you believe is still missing, and state how previous research has failed to examine the issue that your study addresses.

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your study in relation to that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically describing groups of materials one at a time.

To help frame your proposal's literature review, here are the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

1. Cite: keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
2. Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
3. Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
4. Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, etc.].
5. Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, or synthesize what has been said in the literature?

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IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research. As a consequence, the reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. The objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the research problem. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to gather information, about the techniques you would use to analyze it, and about the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, or times].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover these issues:

• Specify the research operations you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results of these operations in relation to your research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about changes to school curriculum].
• Keep in mind that a methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is an argument as to why these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that they add up to the best feasible approach.
• Be sure to anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them.

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V.  Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, this doesn't mean that you can skip talking about the analytical process and potential implications. The purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results of your study will impact future scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policy. Note that such discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.

When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions:

• What might the results mean in regards to the theoretical framework that underpins the study?
• What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the study?
• What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace?
• Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
• How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of problems?
• Will the results influence policy decisions?
• In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued?
• What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
• How will the results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?

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VI.  Conclusion

The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is unique, and how it advances knowledge.

Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:

• Why the study was done,
• The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempted to answer,
• The research design and methods used,
• The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem, and
• A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

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VII.  Citations

As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing your proposal. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your professor about which one is preferred.

1. References -- lists only the literature that you actually used or cited in your proposal.
2. Bibliography -- lists everything you used or cited in your proposal with additional citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem.

In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to make sure the project will complement and not duplicate the efforts of other researchers. Start a new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" centered at the top of the page. Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the discipline of your course [i.e., education=APA; history=Chicago, etc]. This section normally does not count towards the total length of your proposal.

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Develop a Research Proposal: Writing the Proposal. Office of Library Information Services. Baltimore County Public Schools; Heath, M. Teresa Pereira and Caroline Tynan. “Crafting a Research Proposal.” The Marketing Review 10 (Summer 2010): 147-168; Jones, Mark. “Writing a Research Proposal.” In MasterClass in Geography Education: Transforming Teaching and Learning. Graham Butt, editor. (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), pp. 113-127; Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005; Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Punch, Keith and Wayne McGowan. "Developing and Writing a Research Proposal." In From Postgraduate to Social Scientist: A Guide to Key Skills. Nigel Gilbert, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 59-81; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal. Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

 http://www.mesacc.edu/~paoih30491/ArgumentSampleEssays.html

 ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

Definition: In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want to change.

Choosing an argumentative topic is not an easy task. The topic should be such that

• it should be narrowed down

X Marijuana should be considered illegal. (Not a good topic because it is too general. In some medical cases, marijuana is prescribed by the doctors and the patients are encouraged to use it in case of suffering from too much pain)

√ Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

• it should contain an argument

X We should decide whether we want a bicycle or a car. (our stand is not clear: do we support having bicycles or cars?)

√ If we are under the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get a bicycle instead of a car.

X Are you one of those who thinks cheating is not good for students? (a question cannot be an argument)

√ Cheating helps students learn.

X Considering its geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical role in the EU. (facts cannot be arguments)

√ Considering its geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be without Turkey.

• it should be a topic that can be adequately supported (with statistics, outside source citations, etc.)

X I feel that writing an argumentative essay is definitely a challenging task. (feelings cannot be supported; we cannot persuade other people)

If you believe that you can find enough evidence to support your idea and refute others effectively, you can choose challenging topics as well. You can enjoy writing about such topics:

        Cheating is beneficial for students.

         Murat 124 is a very good choice for conscientious drivers.

         Stress is good for the human body.

        Polygamy is quite natural.

         For women, there is no need for men.

Organization: All argumentative topics have PROs and CONs. Before starting writing, it is imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them  for supporting and refuting.

       

There are three possible organization patterns:    

Pattern 1:

        Thesis statement:

PRO idea 1

        PRO idea 2

        CON(s) + Refutation(s)

        Conclusion

Pattern 2:

Thesis statement:

        CON(s) + Refutation(s)

        PRO idea 1

        PRO idea 2

       

        Conclusion

Pattern 3:

        Thesis statement:

        CON idea 1                ----->        Refutation

        CON idea 2                ----->        Refutation

        CON idea 3                ----->        Refutation

        Conclusion

The sample essay has been written according to the third pattern.

Thesis: Do Reiki instead of taking medicine.

	Counter arguments		Refutation
1.	People should trust medicine since it is effective and scientifically proven.	----->	Reiki is also scientifically proven and does not have side effects. (refutation method: insufficient claim)
2.	Serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without medicine.	----->	Medicine also cannot treat serious illnesses if not diagnosed at an early stage. (refutation method: opponents are partially correct)
3.	Reiki, like alternative healing methods, requires a lot of time.	----->	Reiki requires less time if done regularly. (refutation method: opponents are completely wrong)

Supporting our ideas: This is the most important part when persuading others. We are asking some people to change their beliefs or actions. We should be supporting our ideas with such facts, statistics and/or authorities that there should not be room for any doubts. Here are some faulty supports we should avoid:

Thesis: Leaving the university and starting to work is good for the adolescent because …

• Feelings, emotional arguments (… it makes one feel much better.)
• Irrelevant examples (wandering off the topic) (… he would then be able to take his girlfriend to expensive restaurants.)
• Oversimplification (… only then would he understand what it means to be an adult.)
• Hasty generalizations (... it is a widely known fact that all adolescents look forward to earning money.)
• Unreliable, even false outside sources (… according to www.doubtme.com, 80% of working men wish they quit school when they were at university and started working at an earlier age.)

    

For more mistakes in the logic of arguments, see Fallacies.   

Refuting opposing arguments: Before we start saying that the opponents are wrong, we should specify their opposing ideas. Otherwise, it would be like hitting the other person with eyes closed. We should see clearly what we are hitting and be prepared beforehand so that he cannot hit us back. We can do this by knowing what we are refuting.

e.g. X Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education; however, they are wrong. (what they say is not wrong. Maybe their supporting idea is wrong /irrelevant /insufficient. We should state their supporting idea specifically to be able to refute it.)

√ Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education because they are not physically and psychologically mature enough to cope with the problems of the real world. However, they forget one fact: adolescents can vote or start driving at the age of 18 (in some countries even before that age!), which proves that they are considered physically and psychologically mature at that age.

Language: Signposts gain importance in the argumentative essay. They enable the readers to follow our arguments easily.

When pointing out opposing arguments (CONs):

Opponents of this idea claim / maintain that …            

Those who disagree / are against these ideas may say / assert that …

Some people may disagree with this idea.

When stating specifically why they think like that:

The put forward this idea because …

They claim that … since …

Reaching the turning point:

However,

but

On the other hand,

When refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies:

• compromise but prove that their argument is not powerful enough:

They have a point in thinking like that.

To a certain extent they are right.

• completely disagree:

After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say.

• say that their argument is irrelevant to the topic:

What we are discussing here is not what they are trying to prove.

Their argument is irrelevant.

Sample argumentative essay:

HEALTH AND HEALING AT YOUR FINGERTIPS

Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs in your house. A new theory suggests that medicine could be bad for your health, which should at least come as good news to people who cannot afford to buy expensive medicine. However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an even bigger blow to our confidence in the progress of science. This new theory argues that healing is at our fingertips: we can be healthy by doing Reiki on a regular basis.

Supporters of medical treatment argue that medicine should be trusted since it is effective and scientifically proven. They say that there is no need for spiritual methods such as Reiki, Yoga, Tai Chi. These waste our time, something which is quite precious in our material world. There is medicine that can kill our pain, x-rays that show us our fractured bones or MRI that scans our brain for tumors. We must admit that these methods are very effective in the examples that they provide. However, there are some “every day complaints” such as back pains, headaches, insomnia, which are treated currently with medicine. When you have a headache, you take an Aspirin, or Vermidon, when you cannot sleep, you take Xanax without thinking of the side effects of these. When you use these pills for a long period, you become addicted to them; you cannot sleep without them. We pay huge amounts of money and become addicted instead of getting better. How about a safer and more economical way of healing? When doing Reiki to yourself, you do not need anything except your energy so it is very economical. As for its history, it was discovered in Japan in the early 1900s and its popularity has spread particularly throughout America and Western Europe.  In quantum physics, energy is recognized as the fundamental substance of which the universe is composed. Reiki depends on the energy within our bodies. It is a simple and effective way of restoring the energy flow. There are no side effects and it is scientifically explained.

Opponents of alternative healing methods also claim that serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without drugs. They think so because these patients spend the rest of their lives in the hospital taking medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy again? It is very unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital losing their hair because of chemotherapy, losing weight because of the side effects of the medicine they take. Actually, it is common knowledge that except for when the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also cannot treat AIDS or cancer. Most of the medicine these patients use are to ease their pain and their sufferings because of the medical treatment they undergo. Instead of drugs which are expensive and have many side effects, you can use your energy to overcome the hardships of life, find an emotional balance, leave the stress of everyday life and let go of the everyday worries. Most of the chronic conditions such as eczema or migraine are known to have causes such as poor diet and stress. Deep-rooted anger or other strong emotions can contribute to viral infections as well. Since balancing our emotions and controlling our thoughts are very important for our well-being, we should definitely start learning Reiki and avoid illnesses before it is too late.   

Some people may still maintain that in our material world, everything depends on time. It is even “lacking time” that causes much of the stress that leads to the illnesses we mentioned. How would it be possible to find time to do Reiki to ourselves and the people around us when we cannot even find time to go to the theater? This is one good thing about Reiki; it does not require more than 15 minutes of our time. There is no need for changing clothes or special equipment. It is a wonderfully simple healing art, an effective method of relaxation and stress-relief. Most important of all, it is less time consuming than medicine if we think of all the time we spend taking medicine for some complaints and taking some more for the side effects as well.

Having said these, resistance to Reiki would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural and drug-free. What is more, it is easy to learn by anyone, regardless of age and experience. It can be used anywhere, anytime. It also enhances physical, mental, emotional and spiritual well-being and the benefits last a lifetime. It is definitely high time to get away from the drug boxes we store in our drug cabinet!

Cause and effect Essay

http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/Cause%20and%20effect%20Essay.htm

 |Printable version|

Definition:

In this kind of essay, the aim is to explain the causes (reasons) or the effects (results) of an event or situation.

    e.g. Causes of air pollution (multiple factors leading to air pollution).

    e.g. Effects of watching too much TV (many effects of a situation).

Sometimes an event causes something to happen, and that situation leads to another event, and it causes another event to happen. This is called the causal chain or domino effect.

    e.g. Use of deodorants will bring the end of the world.

There may be several causes or effects of a situation. However, in a student essay, it is advisable to keep the number of major points to 2 or 3, which form separate developmental paragraphs.

Organization:

Depending on the topic, there may be three patterns of organization:

1. Multiple causes-->effect

In this pattern, the organization is as follows:

thesis statement: Air pollution is caused by the following factors: exhaust gases from cars, uncontrolled factory releases, and burning of low-quality coal for heating.

I. exhaust gases from cars

    A. government does not have enough control

    B. citizens are not conscientious

II. uncontrolled factory gases

    A. no regular checks on gases released

    B. factories are inside the borders of residential areas

III. burning of low-quality coal for heating

    A. no governmental control

    B. other forms of energy too expensive

Each developmental paragraph is devoted to one of the causes of air pollution. Each cause is supported by two minor supports. While writing, these major and minor ideas should be adequately explained and exemplified as well.

2. Cause-->Multiple effects

In this pattern, the effects of a certain situation  are explained in separate paragraphs, with the following organization:

thesis statement: Watching too much TV is one of the major sociological issues of this century, which has many effects on the physiology and psychology of people.

I. eating disorders

    A. TV meals

    B. obesity

II. communication problems

    A. more violence

    B. no interpersonal talk

   

Again, we have grouped related effects under two main points: physiological and psychological. Then, we have supported each effect with two minor supports (A and B). While writing, we should explain these major and minor supports by giving examples and/or defining what we mean, as well.

3. Causal chain / Domino

In this pattern, the events lead to one another, as in the following organization:

thesis statement: Using deodorants with chlorofluorocarbon gas will bring the end of world.

I. Chlorofluorocarbon gases are contained in most deodorants  and released by  some factories  into the air.

II. This gas causes the ozone layer  to become thinner and finally disappear in patches.

III. The unfiltered ultraviolet rays of the sun cause overheating in the poles of the earth, where the icebergs start to melt.

IV. The huge amount of water released from the poles leads to a rise in the sea-level.

V. The sea will cover the land and this will be the end of the world.

Again, each major point should be supported with examples, statistics that show that there are some factories and deodorants that release chlorofluorocarbons, that there is a rise in the sea-level, etc.

Language:

To explain reasons and results, we use:

As a result,

As a consequence,

Consequently,

So,

Since

As,

Because

One reason why ...

One of the most important reasons why ...

The main reasons why ...

There are other reasons, too, ...

Do not forget that using transitions enables the piece of writing to be coherent; it is easier for the reader to follow our ideas when transitions are used to link them together. However, overuse of transitions causes a traffic jam and should be avoided. We should be using transitions sparingly (only when necessary).

Sample cause and effect essay

EFFECTS OF WATCHING TOO MUCH TV

 

Discoveries and invention of devices  are always welcome till we, humans, find a way to abuse its benefits and be adversely affected by it. This was the case when Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-ray and within five years, the British Army was using a mobile x-ray unit to locate bullets and shrapnel in wounded soldiers in the Sudan. TV was also invented with positive thoughts in mind – there would be no national borders, education and communication would be worldwide, etc. However, we are now trying to overcome its physiological and psychological adverse effects on human beings.

 

One of the physiological effects of watching TV in excessive amounts is eye-strain. It is true that there are specifications for watching TV; TV should be 5 m. away from the eye, the room should be adequately lit, TV should be placed at the same height with our eyes, etc. However, these do not prevent our eyes from getting tired if we keep watching TV for a long time. Another effect is obesity, which is widely observed in people who like watching TV and eating snacks  everyday (there is even a term “TV snacks” to refer to fast food that is suitable for eating in front of the TV). TV is such a powerful machine that people cannot get away from it – it is addictive.

 

Apart from the physiological effects, TV also causes psychological effects. One  is a result of being exposed to violence. After seeing so many violent scenes on TV, people start considering violent actions normal and they lose their sensitivity to their environment. Partly connected to this effect, the interpersonal communication among people decreases. Being insensitive to the suffering of other people causes people to become alienated. Also, after coming home from work people seek to relax in front of the TV, and generally people prefer watching TV to talking to each other. This issue is very important since lack of interpersonal relationships mostly end with divorces.

 

Shortly, inventions are meant to be beneficial for human beings, if we know how to benefit from them. TV is one of such inventions that need to be used for the right purpose only – being educated and entertained for a reasonable (according to age) period of time. We may, then, be safe from or at least reduce the adverse physiological and psychological effects of watching too much TV.

http://www.grossmont.edu/ewc/essay_writing.asp How to Develop and Write an Essay

How to Develop and Write an Essay

Getting Started

Writing is a process of organizing and expressing your thoughts. Since writing is a process, there is no one or single manner of writing an essay. However, "experienced writers pass through certain stages that overlap and circle back on each other" (Little, Brown Handbook). These stages include: 1) Developing or Planning (discovering the subject, gathering information, focusing on a central theme, and organizing material); 2)Drafting (the "writing" that includes creating ideas, expressing ideas, clarifying ideas, and connecting ideas); 3) Revising (rethinking and improving structure, content, style, and presentation; re-writing; editing; and proofreading).

Even though writing is a process, you—the student/essayist—need some place to begin, some steps to follow. To get started:

1. CHOOSE A TOPIC that interests you; choose one that you know something about or one that you can easily research.

2. NARROW YOUR TOPIC. For example, do not write on “Earthquakes”; rather, write on “The San Andreas Fault.” Even this topic is broad enough to warrant writing a book, so you could further narrow it to “The Northridge Earthquake.”

3. USE PREWRITING TECHNIQUES to get ideas down on paper.

a) Brainstorm – Focus on an idea for a set time (say fifteen minutes) and list every idea that comes to mind about a given topic. Do not reject any idea, no matter how absurd. Do not try to list in any order (1, 2 ,3 or A, B, C). Do write down ideas all over the page.

b) Cluster ideas and/or words – Group ideas or words that belong together to discover connections among ideas. Clustering is often done after brainstorming so that similar ideas can be grouped together.

c) Make lists – Outline informally the major points in a tentative order.

d) Free write – Focus on an idea for a set time (say ten minutes) and write down those ideas in paragraph or "essay" format. Do write down every idea, no matter how absurd or unrelated it may seem. Do not think about or be concerned with organization, grammar, sentence structure, or punctuation. Do not stop writing for the given time period (set a timer and if you run out of ideas write "I can't think of anything to write" until another idea comes–and it will).

e) Explore new ideas and a variety of points of view on your topic.

4. MAKE AN OUTLINE to organize your main points. Put similar ideas together; find examples and details to illustrate these ideas.

5. DETERMINE YOUR THESIS, which is the main idea or controlling idea of your paper. A thesis statement is your judgment or opinion about a subject – an opinion you will illustrate, prove, and support in the essay. Your thesis should be narrow and to the point; it should assert an opinion or judgment about the subject; and it should be a complete statement, generally one sentence, not a question, and not a fragment.

WRITING GUIDELINES

When writing any composition, two of the most important considerations are audience and purpose. Use the following guidelines to direct your thinking.

Audience

In writing your composition, determine who your audience will be. Then, consider the following questions:

1. How can I effectively attract the interest of my readers?

2. What knowledge may my readers already have about the topic?

3. What questions will my readers ask about my topic?

4. How can I develop my subject and thesis so that my readers will understand my purpose and ideas?

Do not assume too much about your audience's knowledge. Anyone who reads your essay needs to have a context from which to understand how you drew your conclusion. They do not have to agree with your conclusion, but rather, they should not be able to fault the logic behind your conclusions.

Purpose

A good writer not only considers his or her audience, but also considers the purpose (the "why") for writing. Though any purpose for writing can be refined and made very specific to the task, in general, there are only four purposes for writing:

1. To entertain the reader.
2. To express your feelings or ideas to the reader.
3. To inform or to explain something to the readers (called exposition–a typical college essay).
4. To persuade readers to accept or act on your opinion (called argument–a typical college essay).

Rhetorical Modes

The subject, audience, and purpose of your paper help determine which rhetorical mode you select and help determine how you say it. For example, if your purpose were to persuade your audience/readers to think or act a certain way, you would want to write a persuasive essay. Yet, as a writer, how can you arrange your essay to best present your topic? The writer's tools that you use to arrange and support your position are called rhetorical modes.

The rhetorical modes that are available for you to use in your essays include:

1. Exemplification/ Illustration – explains a general statement by means of one or more specific examples.
2. Narration – tells the story of what happened, the specific events that happened, and the people who were involved. It uses organized facts and details in a clear chronological or time order.
3. Description – describes something – a person, a place, or an object – and captures it in words so others can imagine it or see it in the mind's eye. It uses descriptive examples that make use of the senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch) to convey an image or represent an idea.
4. Process Analysis – uses logical order or chronology to describe how to do something, how a particular event occurs, or how something works.
5. Definition – explains clearly what a word, term, or topic means.
6. Comparison/ Contrast – Comparison examines the ways in which two persons, places, or things are similar while Contrast examines the ways in which they are different. Comparison/Contrast, then, helps the reader understand one person, place, or thing in relation to another. Also, another method of Comparison/Contrast that helps the reader understand one person, place, or thing in relation to another is Analogy which compares/contrast something familiar with something unfamiliar.
7. Cause and Effect – examines why something happened or what its consequences were or will be. Cause and Effect analysis answers the question "Why did something happen, and/or what results did it have?"
8. Classification – gathers items, ideas, or information into types, kinds, or categories according to a single basis of division. For example, an essay could be classified as a narrative, process, or compare/contrast, etc.

The Three-part Essay

College essays should have three parts:

1. An introduction that includes the thesis sentence. General information and your “hook” should come before your thesis statement. The introduction sets the tone of the essay and provides structure to the thoughts that will be supported in the remaining paragraphs. When appropriate, present in the introductory paragraph the major ideas behind your essay. These ideas should be presented in a manner that suggests an order such as an increasing or decreasing level of importance or a chronological order or that suggests another arrangement that clearly identifies a connection between the thoughts. Follow this general information with the thesis statement, the central idea, opinion, or judgment that your essay will prove and/or support. (A note here: although many college essays have the thesis statement in the introduction of the essay or research paper, the thesis can also appear in the middle or at the end of the paper. Placement of thesis will be determined by your subject, purpose, and audience. For example, if your purpose is to have a surprise ending that, in fact, is your thesis statement, do not reveal it in the introduction. Save that thesis for the end of the paper).
2. A body where the thesis is developed through a combination of general ideas and concrete support such as facts, examples, and anecdotes. In the body, each supporting main point or idea is presented clearly. Sometimes each supporting main point can be developed in its own paragraph; other times, a supporting main point will require several paragraphs to fully develop the point and relate it to the thesis. In either case, the general body paragraph should contain: a topic sentence that expresses the controlling idea of the paragraph (the opinion or judgment that the paragraph will show or prove); specific, concrete facts and details that support the topic sentence;examples and illustrations that show or prove the point of the paragraph; and commentary or discussion that will explain: 1) how the examples prove or show the main point and 2) how the main point of the paragraph shows or proves the thesis statement of the essay. The paragraphs should be in the same order as they are presented in the introduction and thesis statement.
3. A conclusion, which is the last part of your paper. Summarize, in different words, the main points of your essay, leaving the reader with a final thought. In the conclusion, provide words that "mirror" your central idea (the point your essay is proving or showing) in such a way that your conclusion along with your "mirrored" thesis statement brings together and embodies the ideas that have been presented and discussed in your essay.

In Summary:

Elements of the Essay	Minimum number of Paragraphs	General comments
Introduction	One paragraph	start general discuss the general subject/topic state the thesis that expresses an opinion or judgment and that is sufficiently narrowed
Body	One paragraph per main point.	develop ideas through the use of: specific concrete detail, examples and commentary
Conclusion	One paragraph	start specific end general reflect the central idea

*Note: The above summary is meant as a guide but can be easily modified to adhere to the needs of a particular assignment or essay style.

Writing Tips

The more you write, the better your writing will be and the easier writing tends to become. Do not worry if your paper contains flaws in your first draft; instead, remember that most successful writers make numerous revisions before they are satisfied with a paper.

1. Develop each point in its own separate paragraph. In general, each paragraph should have its own topic sentence or main idea. Some longer paragraphs may be broken into separate paragraphs for ease in reading while some paragraphs may be short transitional paragraphs. Each paragraph needs unity; it must be about one idea. For coherence, the ideas and sentences must flow smoothly. Make sure each paragraph isdeveloped using concrete, specific, detailed examples.

2. Use lively and interesting words.

a) In general, avoid the use of “you” in formal writing (unless you are writing a Process Analysis). This point of view is an intrusion on the reader who may or may not agree with your perspective. Do not overuse pronouns such as it, he, she, and they; or that and which with no direct antecedent.

b) Verbs are very important to good writing; use action verbs when possible to add more zest to your paper. English depends on verbs to breathe life into nouns for dynamic and interesting sentences. Therefore, be careful not to overuse the “to be” verbs (am, is, are, was, were).

c) Try to find strong nouns (names of people, places, or things).

d) Use a dictionary and/or thesaurus to find effective words. Remember: The process of improving your vocabulary never ends.

e) Avoid contractions in formal papers. For instance, use will not or did not instead of won't or didn't.

3. Use the present tense when writing about a movie, book, magazine article, or short story.

4. Underline and use quotation marks by following these guidelines:

a) Underline or italicize titles of novels, books, plays, book-length poems, films, newspapers, magazines, long musical works, television series, recordings, ships, and words in a language other than English.

b) Use quotation marks for the titles of short stories, stories in books, chapter titles, essays, short poems, magazine articles, television episodes, or songs.

c) Consult a grammar book for other specific instances.

5. Use an epigraph to suggest a theme for your essay. It can be placed between the title and introductory paragraph. An epigraph is a short motto or quotation that suggests a theme. It is important to remember that an epigraph does not take the place of your thesis.

6. Use the Modern Language Association (MLA) parenthetical citations format if you are writing English/Humanities papers and you need to cite source materials. The 4th edition of A Writer's Reference, by Diana Hacker, is now available on the EWC's computer systems. For other disciplines, check with your instructor for specific requirements.

7. Refer to the attached example of a “Works Cited” page. If you have further questions, please go to the MLA Internet site: http://www.mla.org/style/sources.htm and read and/or download a copy of “Documenting Sources from the World Wide Web” to your PC disk. You may then open the document in Microsoft Word.

Writing is an act of discovery. It takes time and practice. Keep working and challenging yourself.

Works Cited [sample]

Books:

Ellis, Bret Easton. Less Than Zero. New York: Vintage Contemporaries, 1985.

Gerard, Philip. Creative Nonfiction. Cincinnati: Story Press, 1996.

[If a work has two or three authors, all the authors' names are listed with the first author listed, Last Name, First Name, and the other others listed First Name Last Name. For example: Rostenberg, Leona, and Madeleine Stern. If a work has more than three authors, the name of the first author is used, followed by a comma and et al.]

Anthology/Collection:

Zinsser, Williams. “College Pressures.” Patterns for College Writing: A Rhetorical Reader and

Guide. Ed. Laurie G. Kirszner and Stephen R. Mandell. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997. 378-386.

[Many short stories and poems (short works) come from anthologies or collections.]

Magazine:

Howard, Ken. “The Bioinformatics Gold Rush.” Scientific American July 2000: 58-63.

Newspaper:

Nessman, Ravi. “S. Africa's AIDS Plan Defended.” The San Diego Union-Tribune. 10 July

2000: A2.

Personal Interview:

King, Stephen. Personal Interview. 6 June 2000.

[“Personal Interview” refers to the type of interview. This reference could also be “Telephone Interview” or “Online Interview.”]

In-text Citations [sample]

Simple Quote:

Regarding the completed draft of the human gnome, many scientists from around the world agree that “The race and competition will be who can mine [the data] best” (Howard 59).

[When integrating quotes, avoid “orphan quotes” – quotes that are inserted into the text without the benefit of a lead-in to establish context. An example of this would be using the above quote with only the material within the quotation marks. In addition, quotes should be followed by commentary linking the quote to the topic of the paper and highlighting the significance of the quote (i.e.: why it has been included). For this reason, a paragraph should not end with a quote.]

Quoted Phrase:

Philip Gerard suggests the interviewing technique as one way to capture stories which could be turned into creative nonfiction. He suggests to be on guard; the process of interviewing is a "human process" which can lead to unexpected results (Gerard 54).

[When using short phrases from longer quotes it is important not to remove the phrase from the context of the original, longer quote. Be careful to maintain the original meaning.]

Long Quote:

. . . an example can be found in the following quote from Ellis' novel, Less Than Zero:

People are afraid to merge on freeways in Los Angeles. This is the first thing I hear when I come back to the city. Blair Picks me up from LAX and mutters this under her breath as her car drives up the onramp. She says, `People are afraid to merge on freeways in Los Angeles.' (Ellis 9)

As can be seen in the style that Ellis uses throughout his many works of fiction, this opening . . .

[A long quote is basically any quote with forty or more words. The quote is indented ten spaces and does not use quotation marks. The citation then follows the punctuation. See the note following the “Simple Quote” reference.]

Paraphrasing:

At a recent international conference concerning the AIDS crisis in Africa, President Thabo Mbeki addressed his widely criticized belief that HIV may not cause AIDS (Nessman).

[A paraphrase must be completely in your own words.]