Many empirical studies have shown that excessive control from strict, negative rules and punishments and extrinsic rewards for doing the "right thing" can achieve short-term compliance.
But there are costs: It undermines intrinsic motivation, it decreases the overall quality of performance, and it connects continued performance to the availability and delivery of rewards.
This is the conundrum when education takes place in a pressured environment in which the teachers' own sense of autonomy has been eroded. Fast compliance is needed so external controls are used, which seem to "work." This success can become addictive, especially since it takes a bit of time to wean students off of extrinsic rewards. It becomes seemingly easier to continue to use external controls for short-term compliance.

Seeking Ideas From Colleagues

The solution for this is a shared philosophy and commitment to developing student autonomy in a developmental sensitive and ongoing way -- from the moment a student enters a school to the moment they depart. Everyone can't simply do their own thing; when people run into disciplinary and organizational trouble, the answer is not to revert to excessive controls. One answer is to reach out to colleagues and get ideas about how to have order and continuity while still supporting student autonomy.

The Balance of Freedom and Order

This balance of freedom and order has been under increasing discussion of late as representing the essence of democracy and a definition of moral responsibility.
In his book, Why We Do What We Do: Understanding Self-Motivation, Edward Deci wrote, "People find freedom in part by accepting their real constraints, but that alone does not ensure that they will function effectively within society. In addition, they may need to accept some of the arbitrary conventions created by the social organization."
Many societies around the world, both secular and religious, vary along which pole they place greater emphasis. Individuals also have to find the right balance for themselves and their life situations in developmentally appropriate ways.
And this is the challenge for educators: How much freedom? How much order? The pressures of education today seem to be tilting the balance toward order and compliance, and this can have harmful long-term consequences for both children and society.
It would be foolish to advocate for autonomy at all times. Getting things done and living in social relationships with others requires some structure. We have to get schools started within a time frame, move students and educators periodically, make time for nutrition and physical activity, foster creativity, and end the day in some predictable and organized ways.
The unanswered questions are: How much autonomy is enough, how much do different individuals need, and how do the answers change over time?

Why SEL Matters

There are direct implications of this for how we present social-emotional and character development (SECD) programs, as well as programs to prevent problem behaviors. The reasons for learning SEL and having positive character are not for a grade or for rewards. SEL skills and character allow you to accomplish great things in the world.
They allow you to be helpful to others, to learn effectively, to contribute to your family, friends, school, and community, and to make your life better. These conversations must be a part of every SECD lesson.

Addressing Risk Behaviors

Similarly, prevention of drugs, alcohol, smoking, and other tobacco and drug use, as well as violence and premature sexual behavior, needs to connect to biology, health, and relationships with others. "This is what happens to you -- realistically, not in the extreme --when you engage in these actions. Here are your risks." It's essential to realize that when students feel a sense of failure, hopelessness, and lack of accomplishment, their sense of risk is different than what their teachers might think.
There is not much risk when one does not have much to lose. But when competence matters and feels attainable, behaviors that compromise that competence are easier to call into question, even in the face of peer pressure.

In Support of Classroom Autonomy

We can give Edward Deci the last word:

Intrinsic motivation represents an orientation to make choices, along with the moral compass to make responsible choices. These are attributes that only accrue positively with practice, and trust, and adults' being willing to challenge their own comfort zones toward the greater good that may result for more children when they are less controlled and more autonomous around learning.

How do you encourage and support intrinsic motivation in your classroom and with your students? Please share in the comments section below.

What Is Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect.
The type of question asked by the researcher will ultimately determine the type of approach necessary to complete an accurate assessment of the topic at hand. Descriptive studies, primarily concerned with finding out "what is," might be applied to investigate the following questions: Do teachers hold favorable attitudes toward using computers in schools? What kinds of activities that involve technology occur in sixth-grade classrooms and how frequently do they occur? What have been the reactions of school administrators to technological innovations in teaching the social sciences? How have high school computing courses changed over the last 10 years? How do the new multimediated textbooks compare to the print-based textbooks? How are decisions being made about using Channel One in schools, and for those schools that choose to use it, how is Channel One being implemented? What is the best way to provide access to computer equipment in schools? How should instructional designers improve software design to make the software more appealing to students? To what degree are special-education teachers well versed concerning assistive technology? Is there a relationship between experience with multimedia computers and problem-solving skills? How successful is a certain satellite-delivered Spanish course in terms of motivational value and academic achievement? Do teachers actually implement technology in the way they perceive? How many people use the AECT gopher server, and what do they use if for?

Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative. It can involve collections of quantitative information that can be tabulated along a continuum in numerical form, such as scores on a test or the number of times a person chooses to use a-certain feature of a multimedia program, or it can describe categories of information such as gender or patterns of interaction when using technology in a group situation. Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collection (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). It often uses visual aids such as graphs and charts to aid the reader in understanding the data distribution. Because the human mind cannot extract the full import of a large mass of raw data, descriptive statistics are very important in reducing the data to manageable form. When in-depth, narrative descriptions of small numbers of cases are involved, the research uses description as a tool to organize data into patterns that emerge during analysis. Those patterns aid the mind in comprehending a qualitative study and its implications.

Most quantitative research falls into two areas: studies that describe events and studies aimed at discovering inferences or causal relationships. Descriptive studies are aimed at finding out "what is," so observational and survey methods are frequently used to collect descriptive data (Borg & Gall, 1989). Studies of this type might describe the current state of multimedia usage in schools or patterns of activity resulting from group work at the computer. An example of this is Cochenour, Hakes, and Neal's (1994) study of trends in compressed video applications with education and the private sector.

Descriptive studies report summary data such as measures of central tendency including the mean, median, mode, deviance from the mean, variation, percentage, and correlation between variables. Survey research commonly includes that type of measurement, but often goes beyond the descriptive statistics in order to draw inferences. See, for example, Signer's (1991) survey of computer-assisted instruction and at-risk students, or Nolan, McKinnon, and Soler's (1992) research on achieving equitable access to school computers. Thick, rich descriptions of phenomena can also emerge from qualitative studies, case studies, observational studies, interviews, and portfolio assessments. Robinson's (1994) case study of a televised news program in classrooms and Lee's (1994) case study about identifying values concerning school restructuring are excellent examples of case studies.

Descriptive research is unique in the number of variables employed. Like other types of research, descriptive research can include multiple variables for analysis, yet unlike other methods, it requires only one variable (Borg & Gall, 1989). For example, a descriptive study might employ methods of analyzing correlations between multiple variables by using tests such as Pearson's Product Moment correlation, regression, or multiple regression analysis. Good examples of this are the Knupfer and Hayes (1994) study about the effects of the Channel One broadcast on knowledge of current events, Manaev's (1991) study about mass media effectiveness, McKenna's (1993) study of the relationship between attributes of a radio program and it's appeal to listeners, Orey and Nelson's (1994) examination of learner interactions with hypermedia environments, and Shapiro's (1991) study of memory and decision processes.

On the other hand, descriptive research might simply report the percentage summary on a single variable. Examples of this are the tally of reference citations in selected instructional design and technology journals by Anglin and Towers (1992); Barry's (1994) investigation of the controversy surrounding advertising and Channel One; Lu, Morlan, Lerchlorlarn, Lee, and Dike's (1993) investigation of the international utilization of media in education (1993); and Pettersson, Metallinos, Muffoletto, Shaw, and Takakuwa's (1993) analysis of the use of verbo-visual information in teaching geography in various countries.

Descriptive statistics utilize data collection and analysis techniques that yield reports concerning the measures of central tendency, variation, and correlation. The combination of its characteristic summary and correlational statistics, along with its focus on specific types of research questions, methods, and outcomes is what distinguishes descriptive research from other research types.

Three main purposes of research are to describe, explain, and validate findings. Description emerges following creative exploration, and serves to organize the findings in order to fit them with explanations, and then test or validate those explanations (Krathwohl, 1993). Many research studies call for the description of natural or man-made phenomena such as their form, structure, activity, change over time, relation to other phenomena, and so on. The description often illuminates knowledge that we might not otherwise notice or even encounter. Several important scientific discoveries as well as anthropological information about events outside of our common experiences have resulted from making such descriptions. For example, astronomers use their telescopes to develop descriptions of different parts of the universe, anthropologists describe life events of socially atypical situations or cultures uniquely different from our own, and educational researchers describe activities within classrooms concerning the implementation of technology. This process sometimes results in the discovery of stars and stellar events, new knowledge about value systems or practices of other cultures, or even the reality of classroom life as new technologies are implemented within schools.

Educational researchers might use observational, survey, and interview techniques to collect data about group dynamics during computer-based activities. These data could then be used to recommend specific strategies for implementing computers or improving teaching strategies. Two excellent studies concerning the role of collaborative groups were conducted by Webb (1982), and Rysavy and Sales (1991). Noreen Webb's landmark study used descriptive research techniques to investigate collaborative groups as they worked within classrooms. Rysavy and Sales also apply a descriptive approach to study the role of group collaboration for working at computers. The Rysavy and Sales approach did not observe students in classrooms, but reported certain common findings that emerged through a literature search.

Descriptive studies have an important role in educational research. They have greatly increased our knowledge about what happens in schools. Some of the important books in education have reported studies of this type: Life in Classrooms, by Philip Jackson; The Good High School, by Sara Lawrence Lightfoot; Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920, by Larry Cuban; A Place Called School, by John Goodlad; Visual Literacy: A Spectrum of Learning, by D. M. Moore and Dwyer; Computers in Education: Social, Political, and Historical Perspectives, by Muffoletto and Knupfer; and Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education, by M. G. Moore.

Henry J. Becker's (1986) series of survey reports concerning the implementation of computers into schools across the United States as well as Nancy Nelson Knupfer's (1988) reports about teacher's opinions and patterns of computer usage also fit partially within the realm of descriptive research. Both studies describe categories of data and use statistical analysis to examine correlations between specific variables. Both also go beyond the bounds of descriptive research and conduct further statistical procedures appropriate to their research questions, thus enabling them to make further recommendations about implementing computing technology in ways to support grassroots change and equitable practices within the schools. Finally, Knupfer's study extended the analysis and conclusions in order to yield suggestions for instructional designers involved with educational computing.

41.1.1 The Nature of Descriptive Research

The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement and observation (Borg & Gall, 1989). Researchers may work for many years to perfect such instrumentation so that the resulting measurement will be accurate, reliable, and generalizable. Instruments such as the electron microscope, standardized tests for various purposes, the United States census, Michael Simonson's questionnaires about computer usage, and scores of thoroughly validated questionnaires are examples of some instruments that yield valuable descriptive data. Once the instruments are developed, they can be used to describe phenomena of interest to the researchers.

The intent of some descriptive research is to produce statistical information about aspects of education that interests policy makers and educators. The National Center for Education Statistics specializes in this kind of research. Many of its findings are published in an annual volume
called Digest of Educational Statistics. The center also administers the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which collects descriptive information about how well the nation's youth are doing in various subject areas. A typical NAEP publication is The Reading Report Card, which provides descriptive information about the reading achievement of junior high and high school students during the past 2 decades.

On a larger scale, the International Association for the Evaluation of Education Achievement (IEA) has done major descriptive studies comparing the academic achievement levels of students in many different nations, including the United States (Borg & Gall, 1989). Within the United States, huge amounts of information are being gathered continuously by the Office of Technology Assessment, which influences policy concerning technology in education. As a way of offering guidance about the potential of technologies for distance education, that office has published a book called Linking for Learning: A New Course for Education, which offers descriptions of distance education and its potential.

There has been an ongoing debate among researchers about the value of quantitative (see 40.1.2) versus qualitative research, and certain remarks have targeted descriptive research as being less pure than traditional experimental, quantitative designs. Rumors abound that young researchers must conduct quantitative research in order to get published in Educational Technology Research and Development and other prestigious journals in the field. One camp argues the benefits of a scientific approach to educational research, thus preferring the experimental, quantitative approach, while the other camp posits the need to recognize the unique human side of educational research questions and thus prefers to use qualitative research methodology. Because descriptive research spans both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, it brings the ability to describe events in greater or less depth as needed, to focus on various elements of different research techniques, and to engage quantitative statistics to organize information in meaningful ways. The citations within this chapter provide ample evidence that descriptive research can indeed be published in prestigious journals.

Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations. For example, Galloway (1992) bases recommendations for teaching with computer analogies on descriptive data, and Wehrs (1992) draws reasonable conclusions about using expert systems to support academic advising. On the other hand, descriptive research can be misused by those who do not understand its purpose and limitations. For example, one cannot try to draw conclusions that show cause and effect, because that is beyond the bounds of the statistics employed.

Borg and Gall (1989) classify the outcomes of educational research into the four categories of description, prediction, improvement, and explanation. They say that descriptive research describes natural or man-made educational phenomena that is of interest to policy makers and educators. Predictions of educational phenomenon seek to determine whether certain students are at risk and if teachers should use different techniques to instruct them. Research about improvement asks whether a certain technique does something to help students learn better and whether certain interventions can improve student learning by applying causal-comparative, correlational, and experimental methods. The final category of explanation posits that research is able to explain a set of phenomena that leads to our ability to describe, predict, and control the phenomena with a high level of certainty and accuracy. This usually takes the form of theories.


The methods of collecting data for descriptive research can be employed singly or in various combinations, depending on the research questions at hand. Descriptive research often calls upon quasi-experimental research design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). Some of the common data collection methods applied to questions within the realm of descriptive research include surveys, interviews, observations, and portfolios.

Types of quantitative research question

Dissertations that are based on a quantitative research design attempt to answer at least one quantitative research question. In some cases, these quantitative research questions will be followed by either research hypotheses or null hypotheses. However, this article focuses solely on quantitative research questions. Furthermore, since there is more than one type of quantitative research question that you can attempt to answer in a dissertation (i.e., descriptive research questions, comparative research questions and relationship-based research questions), we discuss each of these in this article. If you do not know much about quantitative research and quantitative research questions at this stage, we would recommend that you first read the article, Quantitative research questions: What do I have to think about, as well as an overview article on types of variables, which will help to familiarise you with terms such as dependent and independent variable, as well as categorical and continuous variables [see the article: Types of variables]. The purpose of this article is to introduce you to the three different types of quantitative research question (i.e., descriptive, comparative and relationship-based research questions) so that you can understand what type(s) of quantitative research question you want to create in your dissertation. Each of these types of quantitative research question is discussed in turn:

• Descriptive research questions
• Comparative research questions
• Relationship-based research questions

Descriptive research questions

Descriptive research questions simply aim to describe the variables you are measuring. When we use the word describe, we mean that these research questions aim to quantify the variables you are interested in. Think of research questions that start with words such as "How much?", "How often?", "What percentage?", and "What proportion?", but also sometimes questions starting "What is?" and "What are?". Often, descriptive research questions focus on only one variable and one group, but they can include multiple variables and groups. We provide some examples below:

Question:	How many calories do Americans consume per day?
Variable:	Daily calorific intake
Group:	Americans

Question:	How many calories do American men and women consume per day?
Variable:	Daily calorific intake
Group:	1. American men 2. American women

Question:	How often do British university students use Facebook each week?
Variable:	Weekly Facebook usage
Group:	British university students

Question:	How often do male and female British university students upload photos and comment on other users' photos on Facebook each week?
Variable:	1. Weekly photo uploads on Facebook 2. Weekly comments on other users? photos on Facebook
Group:	1. Male, British university students 2. Female, British university students

Question:	What are the most important factors that influence the career choices of Australian university students?
Variable:	Factors influencing career choices
Group:	Australian university students

In each of these example descriptive research questions, we are quantifying the variables we are interested in. However, the units that we used to quantify these variables will differ depending on what is being measured. For example, in the questions above, we are interested in frequencies (also known as counts), such as the number of calories, photos uploaded, or comments on other users? photos. In the case of the final question, What are the most important factors that influence the career choices of Australian university students?, we are interested in the number of times each factor (e.g., salary and benefits, career prospects, physical working conditions, etc.) was ranked on a scale of 1 to 10 (with 1 = least important and 10 = most important). We may then choose to examine this data by presenting the frequencies, as well as using a measure of central tendency and a measure of spread [see the section on Data Analysis to learn more about these and other statistical tests].
However, it is also common when using descriptive research questions to measure percentages and proportions, so we have included some example descriptive research questions below that illustrate this.

Question:	What percentage of American men and women exceed their daily calorific allowance?
Variable:	Daily calorific intake
Group:	1. American men 2. American women

Question:	What proportion of British male and female university students use the top 5 social networks?
Variable:	Use of top 5 social networks (i.e. Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Classmates)
Group:	1. Male, British university students 2. Female, British university students

In terms of the first descriptive research question about daily calorific intake, we are not necessarily interested in frequencies, or using a measure of central tendency or measure of spread, but instead want understand what percentage of American men and women exceed their daily calorific allowance. In this respect, this descriptive research question differs from the earlier question that asked: How many calories do American men and women consume per day? Whilst this question simply wants to measure the total number of calories (i.e., the How many calories part that starts the question); in this case, the question aims to measure excess; that is, what percentage of these two groups (i.e., American men and American women) exceed their daily calorific allowance, which is different for males (around 2500 calories per day) and females (around 2000 calories per day).
If you are performing a piece of descriptive, quantitative research for your dissertation, you are likely to need to set quite a number of descriptive research questions. However, if you are using an experimental or quasi-experimental research design, or a more involved relationship-based research design, you are more likely to use just one or two descriptive research questions as a means to providing background to the topic you are studying, helping to give additional context for comparative research questions and/or relationship-based research questions that follow.

Comparative research questions

Comparative research questions aim to examine the differences between two or more groups on one or more dependent variables (although often just a single dependent variable). Such questions typically start by asking "What is the difference in?" a particular dependent variable (e.g., daily calorific intake) between two or more groups (e.g., American men and American women). Examples of comparative research questions include:

Question:	What is the difference in the daily calorific intake of American men and women?
Dependent variable:	Daily calorific intake
Groups:	1. American men 2. American women

Question:	What is the difference in the weekly photo uploads on Facebook between British male and female university students?
Dependent variable:	Weekly photo uploads on Facebook
Groups:	1. Male, British university students 2. Female, British university students

Question:	What are the differences in usage behaviour on Facebook between British male and female university students?
Dependent variable:	Usage behaviour on Facebook (e.g. logins, weekly photo uploads, status changes, commenting on other users' photos, app usage, etc.)
Group:	1. Male, British university students 2. Female, British university students

Question:	What are the differences in perceptions towards Internet banking security between adolescents and pensioners?
Dependent variable:	Perceptions towards Internet banking security
Groups:	1. Adolescents 2. Pensioners

Question:	What are the differences in attitudes towards music piracy when pirated music is freely distributed or purchased?
Dependent variable:	Attitudes towards music piracy
Groups:	1. Freely distributed pirated music 2. Purchased pirated music

Groups reflect different categories of the independent variable you are measuring (e.g., American men and women = "gender"; Australian undergraduate and graduate students = "educational level"; pirated music that is freely distributed and pirated music that is purchased = "method of illegal music acquisition").
Comparative research questions also differ in terms of their relative complexity, by which we are referring to how many items/measures make up the dependent variable or how many dependent variables are investigated. Indeed, the examples highlight the difference between very simple comparative research questions where the dependent variable involves just a single measure/item (e.g., daily calorific intake) and potentially more complex questions where the dependent variable is made up of multiple items (e.g., Facebook usage behaviour including a wide range of items, such as logins, weekly photo uploads, status changes, etc.); or where each of these items should be written out as dependent variables.
Overall, whilst the dependent variable(s) highlight what you are interested in studying (e.g., attitudes towards music piracy, perceptions towards Internet banking security), comparative research questions are particularly appropriate if your dissertation aims to examine the differences between two or more groups (e.g., men and women, adolescents and pensioners, managers and non-managers, etc.).

Relationship research questions

Whilst we refer to this type of quantitative research question as a relationship-based research question, the word relationship should be treated simply as a useful way of describing the fact that these types of quantitative research question are interested in the causal relationships, associations, trends and/or interactions amongst two or more variables on one or more groups. We have to be careful when using the word relationship because in statistics, it refers to a particular type of research design, namely experimental research designs where it is possible to measure the cause and effect between two or more variables; that is, it is possible to say that variable A (e.g., study time) was responsible for an increase in variable B (e.g., exam scores). However, at the undergraduate and even master's level, dissertations rarely involve experimental research designs, but rather quasi-experimental and relationship-based research designs [see the section on Quantitative research designs]. This means that you cannot often find causal relationships between variables, but only associations or trends.
However, when we write a relationship-based research question, we do not have to make this distinction between causal relationships, associations, trends and interactions (i.e., it is just something that you should keep in the back of your mind). Instead, we typically start a relationship-based quantitative research question, "What is the relationship?", usually followed by the words, "between or amongst", then list the independent variables (e.g., gender) and dependent variables (e.g., attitudes towards music piracy), "amongst or between" the group(s) you are focusing on. Examples of relationship-based research questions are:

Question:	What is the relationship between gender and attitudes towards music piracy amongst adolescents?
Dependent variable:	Attitudes towards music piracy
Independent variable:	Gender
Group:	Adolescents

Question:	What is the relationship between study time and exam scores amongst university students?
Dependent variable:	Exam scores
Independent variable:	Study time
Group:	University students

Question:	What is the relationship amongst career prospects, salary and benefits, and physical working conditions on job satisfaction between managers and non-managers?
Dependent variable:	Job satisfaction
Independent variable:	1. Career prospects 2. Salary and benefits 3. Physical working conditions
Group:	1. Managers 2. Non-managers

As the examples above highlight, relationship-based research questions are appropriate to set when we are interested in the relationship, association, trend, or interaction between one or more dependent (e.g., exam scores) and independent (e.g., study time) variables, whether on one or more groups (e.g., university students).
The quantitative research design that we select subsequently determines whether we look for relationships, associations, trends or interactions. To learn how to structure (i.e., write out) each of these three types of quantitative research question (i.e., descriptive, comparative, relationship-based research questions), see the article: How to structure quantitative research questions.

What are the main types of quantitative approaches to research? It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative research designs if you consider how the researcher designs for control of the variables in the investigation.  If the researcher views quantitative design as a continuum, one end of the range represents a design where the variables are not controlled at all and only observed.  Connections amongst variable are only described.  At the other end of the spectrum, however, are designs which include a very close control of variables, and relationships amongst those variables are clearly established. In the middle, with experiment design moving from one type to the other, is a range which blends those two extremes together. There are four main types of Quantitative research:  Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental Research. Types of Quantitative Design Descriptive research seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable. These research projects are designed to provide systematic information about a phenomenon.  The researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis, but is likely to develop one after collecting data.  The analysis and synthesis of the data provide the test of the hypothesis.  Systematic collection of information requires careful selection of the units studied and careful measurement of each variable. Examples of Descriptive Research: A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers   A description of how parents feel about the twelve-month school year A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming  A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes, and how frequently each occurs A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives Correlational research attempts to determine the extent of a relationship between two or more variables using statistical data.  In this type of design, relationships between and among a number of facts are sought and interpreted. This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its analysis to prove causes for these observed patterns. Cause and effect is not the basis of this type of observational research. The data, relationships, and distributions of variables are studied only. Variables are not manipulated; they are only identified and are studied as they occur in a natural setting.  *Sometimes correlational research is considered a type of descriptive research, and not as its own type of research, as no variables are manipulated in the study.  Examples of Correlational Research: The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem  The relationship between diet and anxiety  The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course  The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades  The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student achievement  The covariance of smoking and lung disease Causal-comparative/quasi-experimental research attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the variables.  These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key differences.  An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured. The researcher does not randomly assign groups and must use ones that are naturally formed or pre-existing groups. Identified control groups exposed to the treatment variable are studied and compared to groups who are not.  When analyses and conclusions are made, determining causes must be done carefully, as other variables, both known and unknown, could still affect the outcome.   A causal-comparative designed study, described in a New York Times article, "The Case for $320,00 Kindergarten Teachers,"  illustrates how causation must be thoroughly assessed before firm relationships amongst variables can be made. Examples of Correlational Research: The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism The effect of gender on algebra achievement The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude The effect of age on lung capacity  Experimental research, often called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study.  The true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case; a laboratory setting has nothing to do with it.  A true experiment is any study where an effort is made to identify and impose control over all other variables except one.  An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variables.  Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments rather than identified in naturally occurring groups Examples of Experimental Research:  The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach on students’ achievement The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were scheduled for surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on computational skill

What is the basic methodology for a quantitative research design? The overall structure for a quantitative design is based in the scientific method.  It uses deductive reasoning, where the researcher forms an hypothesis, collects data in an investigation of the problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is made and conclusions are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false.  The basic procedure of a quantitative design is: Make your observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new.  Investigate current theory surrounding your problem or issue.  Hypothesize an explanation for those observations. Make a prediction of outcomes based on your hypotheses. Formulate a plan to test your prediction. Collect and process your data. If your prediction was correct, go to step 5. If not, the hypothesis has been proven false. Return to step 2 to form a new hypothesis based on your new knowledge. Verify your findings.  Make your final conclusions.  Present your findings in an appropriate form for your audience. REFLECTION:  Copy and paste the Worksheet chart and questions into your Reflection Journal.  Then complete the chart and answer the reflection questions in the digital worksheet. Back to Design Approach

WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSAL (USC Libraries)

The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which this research should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting the research are governed by standards within the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, so guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion.

---

Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal

Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following reasons:

• Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
• Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to ensure a research problem has not already been answered [or you may determine the problem has been answered ineffectively] and, in so doing, become better at locating scholarship related to your topic;
• Improve your general research and writing skills;
• Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals; and,
• Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of doing scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the results of the study and your analysis of those results. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your writing is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

1. What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succient in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to research.
2. Why do you want to do it? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a topic worthy of study. Be sure to answer the "So What?" question.
3. How are you going to do it? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having trouble formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here.

---

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Failure to be concise; being "all over the map" without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.
• Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.].
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
• Failure to stay focused on the research problem; going off on unrelated tangents.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.

---

Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal.  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal. Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Structure and Writing Style

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing a traditional research paper, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. Proposals vary between ten and twenty pages in length. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

• What do I want to study
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In the end, your research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and highlight enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

---

In general your proposal should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to sense your passion for the topic and be excited about the study's possible outcomes.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in one to three paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions:

1. What is the central research problem?
2. What is the topic of study related to that problem?
3. What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
4. Why is this important research, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes from the study?

---

II.  Background and Significance

This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your study proposal and outline why it's important. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the research problem; instead, you must choose what is relevant to help explain the goals for your study.

To that end, while there are no hard and fast rules, you should attempt to deal with some or all of the following:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explaination about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted.
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. Answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care].
• Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research.
• Explain how you plan to go about conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Set the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts or terms.

---

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation. The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methods they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings. Assess what you believe is still missing, and state how previous research has failed to examine the issue that your study addresses.

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your study in relation to that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically describing groups of materials one at a time.

To help frame your proposal's literature review, here are the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

1. Cite: keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
2. Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
3. Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
4. Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, etc.].
5. Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, or synthesize what has been said in the literature?

---

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research. As a consequence, the reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. The objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the research problem. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to gather information, about the techniques you would use to analyze it, and about the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, or times].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover these issues:

• Specify the research operations you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results of these operations in relation to your research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about changes to school curriculum].
• Keep in mind that a methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is an argument as to why these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that they add up to the best feasible approach.
• Be sure to anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them.

---

V.  Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, this doesn't mean that you can skip talking about the analytical process and potential implications. The purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results of your study will impact future scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policy. Note that such discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.

When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions:

• What might the results mean in regards to the theoretical framework that underpins the study?
• What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the study?
• What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace?
• Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
• How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of problems?
• Will the results influence policy decisions?
• In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued?
• What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
• How will the results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?

---

VI.  Conclusion

The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is unique, and how it advances knowledge.

Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:

• Why the study was done,
• The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempted to answer,
• The research design and methods used,
• The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem, and
• A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

---

VII.  Citations

As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing your proposal. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your professor about which one is preferred.

1. References -- lists only the literature that you actually used or cited in your proposal.
2. Bibliography -- lists everything you used or cited in your proposal with additional citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem.

In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to make sure the project will complement and not duplicate the efforts of other researchers. Start a new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" centered at the top of the page. Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the discipline of your course [i.e., education=APA; history=Chicago, etc]. This section normally does not count towards the total length of your proposal.

---

Develop a Research Proposal: Writing the Proposal. Office of Library Information Services. Baltimore County Public Schools; Heath, M. Teresa Pereira and Caroline Tynan. “Crafting a Research Proposal.” The Marketing Review 10 (Summer 2010): 147-168; Jones, Mark. “Writing a Research Proposal.” In MasterClass in Geography Education: Transforming Teaching and Learning. Graham Butt, editor. (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), pp. 113-127; Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005; Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Punch, Keith and Wayne McGowan. "Developing and Writing a Research Proposal." In From Postgraduate to Social Scientist: A Guide to Key Skills. Nigel Gilbert, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 59-81; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal. Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

 http://www.mesacc.edu/~paoih30491/ArgumentSampleEssays.html

 ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

Definition: In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want to change.

Choosing an argumentative topic is not an easy task. The topic should be such that

• it should be narrowed down

X Marijuana should be considered illegal. (Not a good topic because it is too general. In some medical cases, marijuana is prescribed by the doctors and the patients are encouraged to use it in case of suffering from too much pain)

√ Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

• it should contain an argument

X We should decide whether we want a bicycle or a car. (our stand is not clear: do we support having bicycles or cars?)

√ If we are under the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get a bicycle instead of a car.

X Are you one of those who thinks cheating is not good for students? (a question cannot be an argument)

√ Cheating helps students learn.

X Considering its geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical role in the EU. (facts cannot be arguments)

√ Considering its geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be without Turkey.

• it should be a topic that can be adequately supported (with statistics, outside source citations, etc.)

X I feel that writing an argumentative essay is definitely a challenging task. (feelings cannot be supported; we cannot persuade other people)

If you believe that you can find enough evidence to support your idea and refute others effectively, you can choose challenging topics as well. You can enjoy writing about such topics:

        Cheating is beneficial for students.

         Murat 124 is a very good choice for conscientious drivers.

         Stress is good for the human body.

        Polygamy is quite natural.

         For women, there is no need for men.

Organization: All argumentative topics have PROs and CONs. Before starting writing, it is imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them  for supporting and refuting.

       

There are three possible organization patterns:    

Pattern 1:

        Thesis statement:

PRO idea 1

        PRO idea 2

        CON(s) + Refutation(s)

        Conclusion

Pattern 2:

Thesis statement:

        CON(s) + Refutation(s)

        PRO idea 1

        PRO idea 2

       

        Conclusion

Pattern 3:

        Thesis statement:

        CON idea 1                ----->        Refutation

        CON idea 2                ----->        Refutation

        CON idea 3                ----->        Refutation

        Conclusion

The sample essay has been written according to the third pattern.

Thesis: Do Reiki instead of taking medicine.

	Counter arguments		Refutation
1.	People should trust medicine since it is effective and scientifically proven.	----->	Reiki is also scientifically proven and does not have side effects. (refutation method: insufficient claim)
2.	Serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without medicine.	----->	Medicine also cannot treat serious illnesses if not diagnosed at an early stage. (refutation method: opponents are partially correct)
3.	Reiki, like alternative healing methods, requires a lot of time.	----->	Reiki requires less time if done regularly. (refutation method: opponents are completely wrong)

Supporting our ideas: This is the most important part when persuading others. We are asking some people to change their beliefs or actions. We should be supporting our ideas with such facts, statistics and/or authorities that there should not be room for any doubts. Here are some faulty supports we should avoid:

Thesis: Leaving the university and starting to work is good for the adolescent because …

• Feelings, emotional arguments (… it makes one feel much better.)
• Irrelevant examples (wandering off the topic) (… he would then be able to take his girlfriend to expensive restaurants.)
• Oversimplification (… only then would he understand what it means to be an adult.)
• Hasty generalizations (... it is a widely known fact that all adolescents look forward to earning money.)
• Unreliable, even false outside sources (… according to www.doubtme.com, 80% of working men wish they quit school when they were at university and started working at an earlier age.)

    

For more mistakes in the logic of arguments, see Fallacies.   

Refuting opposing arguments: Before we start saying that the opponents are wrong, we should specify their opposing ideas. Otherwise, it would be like hitting the other person with eyes closed. We should see clearly what we are hitting and be prepared beforehand so that he cannot hit us back. We can do this by knowing what we are refuting.

e.g. X Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education; however, they are wrong. (what they say is not wrong. Maybe their supporting idea is wrong /irrelevant /insufficient. We should state their supporting idea specifically to be able to refute it.)

√ Some people may say that adolescents should not leave university education because they are not physically and psychologically mature enough to cope with the problems of the real world. However, they forget one fact: adolescents can vote or start driving at the age of 18 (in some countries even before that age!), which proves that they are considered physically and psychologically mature at that age.

Language: Signposts gain importance in the argumentative essay. They enable the readers to follow our arguments easily.

When pointing out opposing arguments (CONs):

Opponents of this idea claim / maintain that …            

Those who disagree / are against these ideas may say / assert that …

Some people may disagree with this idea.

When stating specifically why they think like that:

The put forward this idea because …

They claim that … since …

Reaching the turning point:

However,

but

On the other hand,

When refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies:

• compromise but prove that their argument is not powerful enough:

They have a point in thinking like that.

To a certain extent they are right.

• completely disagree:

After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with what they say.

• say that their argument is irrelevant to the topic:

What we are discussing here is not what they are trying to prove.

Their argument is irrelevant.

Sample argumentative essay:

HEALTH AND HEALING AT YOUR FINGERTIPS

Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs in your house. A new theory suggests that medicine could be bad for your health, which should at least come as good news to people who cannot afford to buy expensive medicine. However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an even bigger blow to our confidence in the progress of science. This new theory argues that healing is at our fingertips: we can be healthy by doing Reiki on a regular basis.

Supporters of medical treatment argue that medicine should be trusted since it is effective and scientifically proven. They say that there is no need for spiritual methods such as Reiki, Yoga, Tai Chi. These waste our time, something which is quite precious in our material world. There is medicine that can kill our pain, x-rays that show us our fractured bones or MRI that scans our brain for tumors. We must admit that these methods are very effective in the examples that they provide. However, there are some “every day complaints” such as back pains, headaches, insomnia, which are treated currently with medicine. When you have a headache, you take an Aspirin, or Vermidon, when you cannot sleep, you take Xanax without thinking of the side effects of these. When you use these pills for a long period, you become addicted to them; you cannot sleep without them. We pay huge amounts of money and become addicted instead of getting better. How about a safer and more economical way of healing? When doing Reiki to yourself, you do not need anything except your energy so it is very economical. As for its history, it was discovered in Japan in the early 1900s and its popularity has spread particularly throughout America and Western Europe.  In quantum physics, energy is recognized as the fundamental substance of which the universe is composed. Reiki depends on the energy within our bodies. It is a simple and effective way of restoring the energy flow. There are no side effects and it is scientifically explained.

Opponents of alternative healing methods also claim that serious illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without drugs. They think so because these patients spend the rest of their lives in the hospital taking medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy again? It is very unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital losing their hair because of chemotherapy, losing weight because of the side effects of the medicine they take. Actually, it is common knowledge that except for when the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also cannot treat AIDS or cancer. Most of the medicine these patients use are to ease their pain and their sufferings because of the medical treatment they undergo. Instead of drugs which are expensive and have many side effects, you can use your energy to overcome the hardships of life, find an emotional balance, leave the stress of everyday life and let go of the everyday worries. Most of the chronic conditions such as eczema or migraine are known to have causes such as poor diet and stress. Deep-rooted anger or other strong emotions can contribute to viral infections as well. Since balancing our emotions and controlling our thoughts are very important for our well-being, we should definitely start learning Reiki and avoid illnesses before it is too late.   

Some people may still maintain that in our material world, everything depends on time. It is even “lacking time” that causes much of the stress that leads to the illnesses we mentioned. How would it be possible to find time to do Reiki to ourselves and the people around us when we cannot even find time to go to the theater? This is one good thing about Reiki; it does not require more than 15 minutes of our time. There is no need for changing clothes or special equipment. It is a wonderfully simple healing art, an effective method of relaxation and stress-relief. Most important of all, it is less time consuming than medicine if we think of all the time we spend taking medicine for some complaints and taking some more for the side effects as well.

Having said these, resistance to Reiki would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural and drug-free. What is more, it is easy to learn by anyone, regardless of age and experience. It can be used anywhere, anytime. It also enhances physical, mental, emotional and spiritual well-being and the benefits last a lifetime. It is definitely high time to get away from the drug boxes we store in our drug cabinet!